The Roman Empire: The Principate (27 BC-284 AD)
Pax Romana
(Augustus, 27 BC-Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD)
Octavian
realized that only a strong monarchy could rescue Rome, but he had learned a
lesson from Caesar's assassination, so he maintained the facade of the Republic.
He held absolute power without abruptly breaking with a republican past:
magistrates were still elected and assemblies still met; the Senate
administered certain provinces, retained its treasury, and was invited to advise
Octavian. So with some truth,
Octavian could claim that he ruled in partnership with the Senate.
While claiming to rule in partnership with the senate (thus camouflaging
his absolute power and containing senatorial opposition), he retained control of
the powerful Roman army. This was,
therefore, the end of aristocratic politics and the emergence of one-man rule.
In order to veil his autocratic power, Augustus the title of Princeps
("First Citizen") to designate his high position as opposed to
"dictator," an office abolished by Antony and not revived by Augustus.
The Principate was never in theory hereditary, though in practice it came
to be regarded as such, and the new emperor was nominally invested by the senate
and people between them with the prerogatives of his office.
Augustus
added more territory to the Roman Empire than any other single Roman,
often creating client kingdoms, instead of new
provinces. This minimized the Roman military presence in
the east so that he could use his forces elsewhere.
Much of the territory added to the empire was
German (up to the Danube) the horrible loss by
the Roman general Varrus of the Battle of the Teutoberg Forest was one
from which the Romans would never recover (Augustus famous cry, "Varrus,
Varrus give me back my legions!").
They failed to conquer
Germany to the Elbe River, so that the Germans were never Romanized (therefore, the
Rhine becomes the boundary of the Romance languages).
Augustus
concentrated on internal reform to heal the years of civil strife:
1) rebuilt deteriorated temples; 2) revived old priesthoods; 3) restored
religious festivals; 4) legislated against adultery (to prosecute adulterous
wives and their lovers because adultery was a problem in late Republic and he
was attempting to reestablish the integrity of the family); 5) created salaried
civil service open to all citizens to stop corruption; 6) established a
permanent professional army stationed in the frontier and kept out of politics;
he assured them bonuses and land upon retirement to maintain their loyalty to
him [So these legions encircling Italy were the source of his power.]; 7)
improvements in water, fire safety and crime control: built aqueducts and water mains that brought water to most
Roman homes; created a fire brigade that reduced the danger of the great fires
occurring in the tenement districts; he organized a police force to contain
violence; 8) established a new coinage system and laid the foundations for an
elaborate postal service.
Augustus'
reforms and the end of the civil wars ushered in the most glorious and most
prosperous period Rome had ever experienced that resulted in a new
optimism and patriotism!
Augustus
died at 76 years old in AD 14. He
revised a recital of the great deeds he had achieved for the Roman state, which
was to be set up at his tomb. The
original version in Rome has long since disappeared, but another copy of this
work, the
Res Gestae, was carved on the
temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern Andara, capital of Turkey) and still
survives:
At the age of nineteen, on my own initiative and at my own
expense, I raised an army by means of which I restored liberty to the republic,
which had been oppressed by the tyranny of a faction.
As both consuls had fallen in war, the people elected me consul and a
triumvir for settling the constitution.
Those who slew my father I drove into exile, punishing their deed
by due process of law, and afterwards when they waged war upon the republic I
twice defeated them in battle.
Wars, both civil and foreign, I undertook throughout the
world, on sea and land, and when victorious I spared all citizens who sought
pardon. The foreign nations which could with safety be pardoned I
preferred to save rather than to destroy.
At the time of writing these words I had been thirteen times
consul, and was in the thirty-seventh years of my tribunician power.
The dictatorship offered me by the people and the Roman Senate, in my
absence and later when present, I did not accept. I refused to accept any power offered me which was contrary
to the traditions of our ancestors.
I freed the sea from pirates.
The whole of Italy voluntarily took oath of allegiance to me and demanded
me as its leader in the war in which I was victorious at Actium.
The provinces of the Gauls, the Spains, and Germany, bounded by the ocean
fro Gades to the mouth of the Elbe, I reduced to a state of peace.
The Alps I brought to a state of peace without waging on any tribe an
unjust war. My fleet sailed from
the mouth the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri [modern Denmark]
to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by
sea.
In my sixth and seventh consulships, when I had extinguished
the flames of civil war, after receiving by universal consent the absolute
control of affairs, I transferred the republic from my own control to the will
of the senate and the Roman people. For
this service on my part I was given the title of Augustus by decree of the
senate. After that time I excelled
all in authority, but of power I possessed no more than those who were my
colleagues in any magistracy.
In these brief excepts
from the
Res Gestae
one can detect several points at which Augustus skillfully distorted the truth
or glossed over unpleasant events.
NOTE: Augustus married
his wife Livia in a fit of blazing passion, but in later years she was famous in
Rome for her imperious mastery of her husband, the master of the Roman world.
1. Roman
Literature: The
pax Romana
established by Augustus would last for 200 years despite the fact that few
capable rulers would follow; this release from the tensions and worries of the
civil wars would bring a great outburst in arts and letters which is called the
Augustan Age. It was
not called the "Augustan Age" for nothing; in fact, Augustus
was the patron of a number of important Latin authors, such as Virgil, Horace,
and the historian Livy.
They would produce patriotic works that would not only rival their
Hellenistic literary
models but be recognized as literary masterpieces to rival
any works ever written.
The earliest extant Roman literature are the comedies of Plautus
(254-184 BC), which are basically adaptations of Greek comedies.
The Golden Age of Latin Literature includes the works of
Cicero, who
wrote on philosophy, political theory, and rhetoric.
Known as the “master of Latin prose,” his style was admired by the
Renaissance humanists of the 15the c. who rediscovered his writings as well as
the critics of the ancient world. Important,
too, are 900 letters of his that survive because of their interest to
historians.
Lucretius
(see below under Roman Philosophy.)
Vergil
(70-19 BC) is considered the greatest figure in Latin literature because of his
epic the Aeneid, a poem written under the patronage of Augustus.
A major theme of
the Aeneid
is to demonstrate that the Roman
Empire under Augustus was a divine plan initiated by the hero Aeneas, an
ancestor of Augustus' Julian clan.
Ovid (43 B.C.-18A.D.), last of the great poets
of the golden age, is famous not only for the
Metamorphoses.
a book
of mythology, but also his
Art of Love,
a
handbook on
seducing women. The latter will result in his banishment from Rome
by Augustus because
it seemed to
encourage the loose sexual morals of the Roman upper classes at
the very time Augustus was
attempting to encourage the moral reform of the upper classes.
Juvenal (55-130 AD), a poet of the Silver Age, attacked the
evils of Roman society in his Satires and in doing so allows a glimpse
into the everyday lives of the Romans.
Tacitus
(55-117AD) is a great Roman historian writing in the tradition of Thucydides,
though highly influenced by Livy and Sallust.
2. Roman
Philosophy: The
Romans produced little in the way of original philosophical writing.
Their practical nature made them suspicious of professional philosophers
and unable to appreciate the rather subtle delights involved in arguing both
sides of a complex moral or ethical question.
In consequence, most of the great philosophical writers devoted their
energies to expounding Greek philosophy to a Roman audience. The two most appealing to the Romans was Epicureanism and
Stoicism.
Epicureanism
never reached the popularity of Stoicism, mainly
because it was misinterpreted as a typically Greek enthusiasm for
self-indulgence and debauchery in a search for pleasure.
Lucretius attempted to correct this impression by stressing the
intellectual and rational aspects by explaining that the gods, if they exist,
play no part in human affairs or in the phenomena of nature.
This allows mankind to live free from superstitious fear of the unknown
and the threat of divine retribution. Lucretius
was fighting an uphill battle, though, because the Roman superstitious nature
and sense of duty to the state left little to be desired in Epicureanism.
Julius Caesar was an Epicurean.
Stoicism,
on the other hand, definitely appealed to Roman intellectuals with its doctrine
of a world governed by Reason and a Divine Providence watching over the virtuous
not allowing them to suffer evil. Virtue
consisted of desiring only that which is under one’s control. Therefore, riches, power, physical health (all subject to the
whims of Fortune) are excluded as objects of desire. The chief exponent of this philosophy was Epictetus (50-134
AD), a former slave who established a school of philosophy in Rome and then
Greece. The last great Stoic was
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) whose Meditations illustrates his attempt to
be emperor and live the life of a Stoic.
The
common Roman, though, was too superstitious for either of these philosophies and
continued to engage in festivals to the traditional deities and to practice
rituals that tried to read the future by examination of animals entrails, etc.
As problems for the empire increased and daily life contained more stress
from plagues, barbarian invasions, economic difficulties, etc., the lower
classes would succumb to the promises of a better life in the
afterlife. Even intellectuals would leave Stoicism for Neo-Platonism,
a philosophy formulated by Plotinus that actually marks the end of
philosophy in the ancient world with its emphasis on mystical union with
God rather than reason as the path to truth.
3. Roman Religion:
“Every aspect of Roman society was permeated with religion. The official state religion focused on the worship of a
pantheon of gods and goddesses, including Juno, the patron goddess of women;
Minerva, the goddess of craftspeople; Mars, the god of war; and Jupiter Optimus
Maximus ( best and greatest), who became the patron deity of Rome and assumed a
central place in the religious life of the city.
As Rome developed and came into contact with other peoples and gods, the
community simply adopted new deities. Hence,
the Greek Hermes became the Roman Mercury and the Greek Demeter Ceres.
Apollo and Asclepius, both gods of healing, were added directly to the
Roman pantheon. The Romans also
took over the enormous body of Greek mythology as well.
By the end of the third century BC, a rather complete amalgamation of
Greek and Roman religion had occurred. In
general, the Romans were very tolerant of new religious cults and only
occasionally outlawed them. The
most prominent example occurred in 186 BC when authorities curtailed the
orgiastic cult of Bacchus (Dionysus), charging that its secret societies seemed
to be fomenting anti-Roman conspiracies.
"Roman religion focused on the worship of the gods for
a very practical reason--human beings were thought to be totally dependent upon
them. The Romans expressed this
dependency in contractual terms. If
a man followed the correct ritual in worship, then the gods would act favorably
toward him; if they granted his request, he must make an offering in gratitude;
if a man failed to observe proper ritual, he could expect to be punished.
Not morality, but the exact performance of ritual was crucial to
establishing a right relationship with the gods. What was true for individuals
was also valid for the state. It also had to observe correct ritual in order to receive its
reward. Accurate performance of
ritual was consequently important, and the Romans established a college of
priests or pontiffs to carry out that responsibility.
Initially three in number, by the first century BC, they had increased to
sixteen. The pontiffs were in
charge of what the Romans called the
ius divinum (divine law) or, in other words, of maintaining the right
relationship between the state and the gods. The pontiffs then were really officials of the state; in
effect, they were the heads of the religious department of state.
They performed all public religious acts and supervised magistrates in
the correct ritual for public political acts.
If the rituals were performed correctly, Romans would obtain the
"peace of the gods. No doubt, the Roman success in creating an empire was a
visible confirmation of divine favor. As
Cicero, the first-century politician and writer, claimed, "We have overcome
all the nations of the world, because we have realized that the world is
directed and governed by the gods….
“In
addition to the college of pontiffs, a college of augurs existed whose
responsibility was to interpret the signs (auspices) or warnings that the gods
gave to men. Before every important
act of state, a magistrate with imperium too the
auspices to make sure the gods approved. The
Romans attributed great importance to this--If the omens were unfavorable, then
the act was invalid or the planned action was not auspicious…Auspices were
taken by observing the flights of birds, lightning and other natural phenomena,
and the behavior of certain animals” (Spiel.4th Ed. 128-9).
There were many other priests:
those that controlled the so-called Sibylline Books (collections of
oracles brought to Rome from Cumae by King Tarquin) and were always consulted in
a crisis; the flamines --individual
priests dedicated to service of one particular god; and minor priests such as the Salii, Fetiales, Luperci, and
Vestal Virgins.
“Religious
festivals were an important part of Roman religious practice.
There were two kinds: public
festivals ordained and paid for by the state and private festivals celebrated by
individuals and families. Public
festivals included annual ones, such as the Lupercalia, and irregular ones that
were held upon the occasion of a victory or emergency of some kind.
By the mid-second century BC, six public festivals were celebrated
annually, each lasting several days.
“The
practice of holding of games also grew out of religious festivals.
The games were inaugurated in honor Jupiter Optimus Maximus, but had
become annual events by 366 BC. In
the late Republic both the number of games and the number of days they lasted
were increased. Consequently, state
funds became inadequate for the magnificence expected and the aediles, who were
in charge of the games and hoped to use their office as a stepping-stone to
higher political offices, paid additional
expenses out of their own pockets. Originally the games consisted of chariot
racing in the Circus Maximus; later, animal hunts and theatrical
performances were added. In the empire, gladiatorial contests would become the primary
focus” (Spiel. 4th Ed. 129).
The city priests with their temples, statues and
complicated ceremonies could not achieve the reverence and awe which had
characterized the simple country religion. Superstitious fears began to replace genuine religious
feelings, and the Romans became more concerned with omens and portents than with
the gods themselves. In addition
the influx of foreign religions and the increasing skepticism among the educated
would take its toll on traditional Roman religion.
One example of skepticism among the educated is Publius Claudius Pulcher,
who in 249 BC during the first sea battle during the First Punic War, when told
the sacred chickens would not eat and it was a bad omen, dropped them overboard
saying, "At least they can drink."
Another is Cicero, who criticized augury.
He said if you look at the liver of the first chicken and it bodes ill
but take another and it will bode well, did the gods change their minds?
No, it is just chance.
Indeed, the popularity of mystery religions may demonstrate a
loss of faith in the rational and secular values of classical humanism, for even
philosophies that were popular earlier give way to a more mystical philosophy
called Neo-Platonism, the main goal
of which was to achieve the ecstatic union of the soul with God.
4. Science:
The Romans had little scientific curiosity, so they would not be productive
in scientific theory, but they were masters of the practical application of
Hellenistic science. This is especially true of engineering as the Romans
build roads, bridges, public buildings, and aqueducts. They invent
concrete and develop the use of the arch as a structural principle (see below
under "architecture").
Pliny the Elder (27-79 AD) wrote a book called Natural
History would become the standard book on science throughout the Middle
Ages. He supposedly read 2,000 books to write it. Unfortunately, it
is a mixture of fact and fable without any method of classification.
Claudius Ptolemy resided in Alexandria in the second century
AD. He wrote on geography, astronomy, and mathematics. His
"great work" or Almagest proposed a geocentric
(earth-centered) universe, one made up of a series of concentric spheres with a
fixed and motionless earth at the center. With corroborative evidence from
the Bible and Aristotle, this theory will hold sway throughout the Middle Ages.
Galen (129-199 AD) was originally physician for a school of
gladiators, but rose to become the court physician to the emperor Marcus
Aurelius. He was the first to understand the mechanism of respiration; he
also encouraged the dissection of dead and living animals to understand the
body's moving parts. Galen proposed that good health was dependent on the
proper balance of hot and cold, moist and dry bodily fluids, or humors (blood,
phlegm, black bile and yellow bile), a balance that could be disrupted by
corrupt air, the movement of planets, or even emotionalism. An often used
cure, therefore, was to bleed the patient! The "father of the United
States," George Washington will die an early death because of being bled by
his doctors.
5.
Architecture: Greatly influenced by the Etruscans and the
Greeks, the Romans will far surpass them in innovative construction. The
major contributions of the Romans to architecture are in four major
characteristics:
1. Building for use, a shift from religious buildings to civil engineering: The Romans would
solve practical problems by focusing on basilicas, baths, aqueducts, roads,
bridges, and sewer systems.
"Building a 200-mile (320-kilometer) highway over the mountains, moving
part of a hill over 100 feet (30.4 meters) high to make way for a forum,
providing a sewer system for a city of over a million inhabitants, bridging the
Danube at its widest point, perfecting such a new building material as
concrete--all these were taken in stride" (Fleming 92).
2.
Development of the arch as a structural principal: Going beyond the post
and lintel construction of the Greeks, the Romans made considerable use of
curvilinear forms such as the arch, vault, and dome. Inventing concrete,
the Romans were able to construct massive buildings using these curvilinear
forms.
3.
Emphasis on verticality: Because of new materials and the use of
curvilinear forms, the Romans built taller and taller structures, some as high
as six stories (Trajan's market).
4.
Design of significant interiors: Population growth necessitated large
interiors, but there was a problem of lighting. Greek temples had no
windows and only a door that faced the East. The Romans will solve
that with windows or holes in the roof (see Pantheon below).
The
Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa in 27-25 BC but completely rebuilt by Hadrian
consisted basically of a cylinder with a dome on top. To give the building
the look of a temple a facade with pediment and columns was added. The
interior, 144' in height and diameter, included a ceiling with coffers (indented
panels) with gilded rosettes or stars in the center and niches around the walls
with statues of the planetary deities (Jupiter, Saturn, Venus, Mars, Mercury,
the sun and the moon). Symbolizing the power and majesty of the Roman
world state, it is the oldest structure with the original roof in tact.
The
Coliseum, built by Vespasian AD 72-80, is the most famous Roman edifice.
This huge three-story amphitheater is a quarter of a mile in circumference and
seated 45-50,000.
6.
Sculpture & Painting: Roman sculpture and painting continued
the Hellenistic trends toward realism. It was realistic, individualistic
and secular. Examples of portraiture, frescoes, floor mosaics as well as
many statues survive from antiquity.
7.
Roman Law: Historians generally agree that the most
important legacy of Rome is its system of
law. This legacy includes legal concepts
of civil rights, the legal personality of corporations, contractual
obligations, real and personal property, private ownership, modes of
proof for use in the courtroom, the legal force of a will
(Urch, Erwin J., "Roman
Law among Classical Studies"
(The Classical Journal,
1934)).
Roman law passed through two essential
stages, the formation of the ius civile "law of the
citizen" and the formation of the ius gentium "law of the
peoples or nations."
The beginning of Roman law was the Twelve Tables (450 BC),
Rome's first code of law. This was enlarged by laws passed by the Senate
and assembly and judicial interpretations by emperors and professional
jurists. Rome's contact with the Greeks and other peoples during the
Republic's expansion led to the development of the ius gentium which
combined Roman civil law with principles selected from the legal traditions of
conquered peoples. By the 2nd century AD the emperor had become the sole
source of law, a responsibility which was entrusted to scholars influenced by
the Stoic concept of a "law of nature" common to all people and
ascertainable by means of human reason. This Stoic
tradition is the beginning of the concept of rational law in the West.
In the 6th century AD the emperor Justinian would appoint a
commission of lawyers to codify existing law to bring it into harmony with new
conditions and to establish it as an authoritative basis of his rule.
Dr.
Richard Baldwin, Gulf Coast State College.